Computer Engineering Essays - Computing, Classes Of Computers

Computer Engineering Computer technology has advanced dramatically over the past ten years. Technology has advanced from computers the size of a room that can only perform one particular task, to personal computers (PC's) that will fit on a desk and perform multiple tasks. Understanding computers and their programs and being able to apply that knowledge is very important in today's workplace. Engineering is a field that requires an extensive background in computer technology. Future engineers will benefit dramatically from having a strong background in computer technology. In order to understand why computers are important, we have to understand what a computer is and what it does. A computer is a device capable of performing a series of calculations or logical operations without human intervention. The computer is characterized by the number and complexity of operations it can perform and by its ability to process, store, and retrieve data ("Computers" 1). The development of computers began in the 19th century by British mathematician Charles Babbage (Eadie 3). Babbage designed, but did not build, a mechanical digital device capable of processing information as a modern computer does (4). In 1930 American scientist Vannevar Bush built a mechanically operated device, called a differential analyzer (4). It was the first general-purpose analog computer. Analog computers will be discussed later in this paper. The first information-processing digital computer actually built was the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I computer (4). Completed in 1944, this electromechanical device was designed by American engineer Howard Aiken (5). In 1946 the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or ENIAC, was put into operation (5). Using thousands of electron tubes, it was the first electronic digital computer. In the late 1950s transistors replaced electron tubes in computers, allowing a reduction in the size and power consumption of computer components (5). In the 1960s hybrid computers were tried that connected analog computers to digital ones. Later integrated circuits were developed that allowed further reduction in component size and increase in reliability. The introduction of a relatively easy to use PC in 1981 began a period in the rapid growth of the computer industry. The computer industry is still thriving today with the introduction of faster processors such as the Pentium II and now the Pentium III, high tech printers, scanners, and of course the Internet. There are two types of computers, analog and digital. An analog computer is designed to process data in which the variable quantities vary continuously; it translates the relationships between the variables of a problem into analogous relationships between electrical quantities, such as current and voltage, and solves the original problem by solving the equivalent problem, or analog, that is set up in its electrical circuits (Eadie 9). Because of this feature, analog computers are useful in the simulation and evaluation of certain complex situations. Analog computers do not play a role in engineering today, but without the introduction of analog computers PC's would not be what they are today. Digital computers are referred to as PC's. PC's are used everyday in the workplace, at school, and at home. Many programs can be accessed and loaded into a digital computer. Most technical jobs, including engineering, require experience and understanding of PC's and the programs that are related to the field in which the PC is being used. A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form; its circuits perform mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The numbers operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary system. Binary digits, which are also known as bits, are 0 and 1, so that 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc. correspond to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. A series of eight bits, called a "byte", is the basic data unit of computers. A digital computer can store the results of its calculations for later use, can compare the results with other data, and on the basis of such comparisons can change the series of operations it performs ("Computers" 2). PC's would not be useful if it were not for the information that we enter into them. Input to a computer can come directly from people. Human beings can directly communicate with the computer terminals, entering instructions and data by means of keyboards or by using a mouse and receiving the information through a printer. Entering data into a computer can be extremely complicated for someone who is not experienced in downloading. In engineering understanding how to download a program is not as important as knowing how to run a program unless, of course, you are

Personal Financial Planning essayEssay Writing Service

Personal Financial Planning essayEssay Writing Service Personal Financial Planning essay Personal Financial Planning essayQ1. How are you saving for retirement?   If you are currently not saving for retirement, design a plan for your retirement savings.   Explain in 1 concise paragraph.Retirement planning will strongly depend on the type of income that will be available in the future and the options offered by the employer. One possible way of planning for retirement is the following: investing about 4% of gross salary into an annuity which will yield the basic income and investing 3% of gross salary into an Individual Retirement Account with reasonable mutual fund investments and solid previous history. Such diversification allowsQ2. Would you favor reforming Social Security to eliminate inequalities in the distribution of spouse benefits? If so, what kind of changes would you propose?Spouse benefits in Social Security often result in discrimination against low-earning workers in a couple, since they will receive the same benefits as the persons who have never worke d and therefore never invested into Social Security. Since in most cases the lower-earning person in the household is wife, in the couples where men earn equally those women who never worked are eligible for similar retirement benefits as those who did work but received lower wages (Gitman ¸ Joehnk Billingsley, 2010). On one hand, those women who invested their time in child-rearing and looking after older relatives deserve these payments, but such inequality also rewards those who withdraw from work. It would be useful to introduce a cumulative index for individuals taking into account their work contributions and family contributions. The value of benefits determined using such an index would help to reduce or even eliminate inequality.Q3. What do you think is the single most pressing political issue for older Americans? Explain your answer.For older Americans, key political issues are related to financing their retirement and accessing medical services. Currently the most pres sing issue is the existence of Social Security fund and its accessibility in the future. There might be different pressures depending on the generation; for example, when the Millennials approach retirement, they might face a depletion of Social Security resources accompanied by additional measures limiting their eligibility (such as increased retirement age) (Gitman ¸ Joehnk Billingsley, 2010). This issue has a direct impact on the lives of older Americans and therefore is the most pressing for them.

Course work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Course work - Essay Example In regard to the NEC contracts, the issues that arise between parties involved in the contract are handled by the adjudicator (clause 91.1). The adjudicator will give his ruling after a maximum period of 4 weeks (Bennett 2001). During this time the parties must go on with their obligations as if nothing has happened as they wait for the ruling. Reasons for termination are outlined in clause 95(95.1 -95.6) that show the grounds that can be used by either party to terminate the contract. Sacking of a contractor is the termination of the working agreements between them. The contract becomes null and void and the parties lose the working relationship they once had. Removal of a contractor is usually an extreme method of dealing with non-performance. This is despite the fact that it might lead to less headaches in regards to the particular contractor it has certain adverse effects (Rowlison, 2011). It is advisable to have the contractor on board until a particular project is finished then seeking legal redress thereafter. This protects the project manager from some legal hurdles. To begin with, it is very difficult to fire a contractor. Once a contractor is fired, there is the issue of the unfinished work which is on a certain timeline. Getting a different contractor to finish the work can be a hassle given that other contractors will be wary of working with such a project manager (Bennett 2001). The project manager will have limited bargaining power and might not get the best that the market has to offer. This will therefore compromise the quality of the project. Termination of a contract can be by two ways. This can be by using the terms of the contract or claiming that the behavior of the contractor is appalling and this behavior may imply that the contract does not exist. Termination by using the terms of the contract involves giving notice to the contractor as per the set guidelines in the contract (Rowlison, 2011). Contract termination due

Contemporary issues in management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 3

Contemporary issues in management - Essay Example Besides, Boje applies a wide spectrum of academic formulae that is in the quantum age management to identify the diverse availability of the organizational storytelling purposes. In addition to that, he rejects the systematic conformity to professional bureaucracy, further alienating the managerial academics. Instead, Boje’s arguments lean towards standing conferences on management, international business academics and sources that support responsible civic friendliness. In a story â€Å"The true account of death by violence†, the author seeks to define the meaning of organizational storytelling practices. He sets outs to explain the difference between Washburn’s counter narrative and the historical narrative that was passed down along generations. Therefore, in this context, storytelling is a general declaration of the entire field. The above story is an important depiction of the sub domains of the wider storytelling. These are the storytelling practices and the organizational storytelling practices. Storytellers in an organizational environment make sense of the organizational past stories by playing the role of passing the stories down along the generations. The CEO in an organization, according to Boje, is not the only storyteller in the institute. Instead, everyone inside and around the organization bears the role of a storyteller. Despite this, the difference between these groups of storytellers lies in their positional power, influence and awareness. In a bid to explain the storytelling in organization, the author depicts it as purposive distortion, cons, exaggeration, gossip, lies, witch-hunt and rumours in the view of pragmatic storytellers. This is the main reason why the author redefines quantum storytelling. He observes that the competence associated with storytelling is steadily declining, as the societies are

Zara Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Zara Business - Essay Example From there it expanded into 79 countries with 1,830 stores all across Asia, Europe, Africa and America (Qureshi, Store Wars: Zara and Mango, 2012).Its main focus has always been creativity, quality of design and rapid response time. Zara’s main target customers have always been young, price-conscious people who are very sensitive to latest fashion trends. According to the article ‘Analyzing Zara’s Business model’ its product line is divided in to 60% for women, 25% for men and 15% fast growing children (Analysing Zara’s business model , 2011). Main customers of Zara are middle class urban women for whom fashion means everything. The customers of this particular brand wants trendy, fashionable and unique outfits at an affordable price and up to date with the new up coming fashion trends. Another unique characteristic of this particular brand is that they take very less time in identifying and bringing their products to shelves that is with in 30 days where as others may take around 3-4 months (Analysing Zara’s business model , 2011). This is possible mainly due to their control on garment supply chain from design to retail unlike many other competitive stores. It is possible as most of the manufacturing is being done in-house. 50% of the products are produced in house where as 46% are framed out into ready to cut pieces (Roux, 2002) Zara’s core mission has always been a blend of creative, quality and rapid response to market demands. To achieve this a business model was framed that depended on two main points. One being quick response to changing fashion and second being involvement of employees at a large scale. For instance a store manager could decide which clothes to put on sale in that particular store according to the response of customers shopping there. The vaiety of clothing also becomes a main selling point of the brand. In the article Reign of Spain the author talks about how a model never stays in the s hop for more than four weeks. This increases the visists of the customers, for Zara’s its 17 times a year where as for other similar competitive stores its only 3 to 4 times a year (Roux, 2002). In around four to five weeks new collections are available. It’s designer team comprises of around 2 thousand designers which produce 12,000 models each year for sale which are designed kept in mind customer preferences, wishes and demands. Since every four weeks the stores are hit by new models the quantity produced of each model is very less making it a unique piece which makes customers rush to stores to grab them before they run out this has made its customers in to serious impulse buyers. Unlike other brands Zara spends very less on advertisement which is around 0.3% of its total revenue unlike other competitors which spend around 3-4%. Instead they spend heavily on their stores which are located in prime locations of cities. The complany is built upon a vertically integra ted demand and supply chain while most textile chains rely on outsourcing and cheap labor in China. Vertically integrated are companies that are linked together by a single owner it gives Zara a greater control over the whole process from manufacture to retail which helps it fulfill its main idea of its business plan which is to respond quickly to demands and fashion trends. The operational cycle of Zara includes three main basic steps ordering, fulfillment and design and manufacturing. Each store places order twice a week to headquarters to replenish items and for new stocks. These orders are sent to stores in two days. The design and manufacturing goes throughout the year. New models are continously hitting stores unlike other competitive firms that lauch collections for just summer, spring, fall and winter. Another competitive

Self awareness in persons with brain injury

Self awareness in persons with brain injury Acquired brain injury (ABI) is a major medical issue which can affect anyone regardless of class, race, ethnicity, gender, or age. It can be defined as damage to the brain, which occurs after birth and is not related to a congenital or a degenerative disease. These impairments may be temporary or permanent and cause partial functional disability or psychosocial maladjustment (Brain Injury Association, 2009). People who have sustained an acquired brain injury are not easily pinpointed in society due to the lack of external symptomology, and therefore ABI is usually referred to as the hidden disability. This title, named accordingly, is due to the extensive damage to their cognitive and social functioning and less to do with their physical appearance, which in many cases remained unchanged. So what causes ABI, and who can be affected by it? This type of injury can occur due to a series of incidents, and anyone can be affected by it. Some possible incidents include a road traffic accident, a fall, an assault, a stroke which causes damage to the brain, complications during brain surgery, tumours, viral infections, or lack of oxygen to the brain (a possible result of a heart attack, hypoxia, or anoxia). ABI can be split into two types traumatic and non-traumatic. A traumatic brain injury can occur due to a closed or open injury. The more common type, closed injury, occurs when the brain is bounced around in the skull due to a blow to the head, such as the impact from a road traffic accident. What this impact results in is damage to the brain tissue. An open injury, on the other hand, occurs when an object such as a bullet, fractures the skull and enters the brain (Headway, 2009). This type of injury is less common and usually damages a specific part of the brain, therefor e resulting in specific problems. The other type, non-traumatic injury, is simply one that does not occur as a result of a trauma, such as a stroke or a tumour. Prevalence of ABI is unknown within Ireland, however Headway (2009), an Irish organisation specialising in brain injury rehabilitation, accumulated ABI data from various countries and applied this to an Irish population in order to estimate the prevalence. With this information they suggested that between 9,000 and 11,000 people sustain a traumatic brain injury each year in Ireland. They estimated that there are approximately 30,000 people in Ireland between the ages of 16-65 with long term problems following trauma to the brain, and that the 15-29 year old group are three times more likely to sustain a brain injury than any other group. Another Irish study, OBrien Phillips (1994), recorded individual patient details for all head injury admissions to the Neurosurgical Unit at Beaumont Hospital, Dublin. They estimated a prevalence of head injury among patients in Ireland to be approximately 13,441 per year, which is just slightly higher than Headways (2009) estimation. Results from t he 225 patients they studied portrayed that road traffic accidents accounted for 48% of injuries sustained (the largest proportion), and falls accounted for 36%. The researchers also found that between 1987 and 1993 there were 3,154 people killed and 64,971 injured on Irish roads. Alcohol consumption prior to the injury was also found in 31% of cases. In a larger study, Tagliaferri et al. (2006) attempted to locate the prevalence rate of brain injury, this time in Europe. They claimed that the absence of prevalence data hampers the full assessment of medical treatment and rehabilitation needs (p. 265) and that prevalence studies in Europe are essential, and should be undertaken extensively. With this in mind they suggest that brain injury patients will increase by 775,500 each year in the EU, and that 6,246,400 people are alive with some degree of TBI [traumatic brain injury] (p. 260). Thus we can conclude from these studies that Ireland has a prevalence rate of ABI from about 9,000 to 13,5000, a slight impingement upon Europes figures, but a worryingly high statistic for Ireland alone. There are three levels of brain injury, which indicate the severity of the neurological injury mild, moderate, and severe brain injury. To qualify for a mild brain injury, one must score between 13 15 on the Glascow Coma Scale, which records the conscious state of a person. This type of brain injury can occur due to a brief loss of consciousness, and the patient may present himself or herself as confused, and suffering from a concussion. Symptoms that occur within this severity of brain injury are predominantly headaches, fatigue, irritability, sensitivity to noise or light, balance and memory problems, nausea, decreased speed of thinking, depression, and mood swings. A moderate traumatic brain injury can be diagnosed when the patient scores a 9 12 on the Glascow Coma Scale. This injury occurs when there is a loss of consciousness that lasts from a few minutes to a few hours, and confusion lasts from days to weeks. Patients in this category usually make a good recovery with treatm ent. The last level of brain injury is severe brain injury, and this occurs when there is a prolonged unconscious state or coma that lasts days, weeks, or months. This category can be categorized into subgroups of coma, vegetative state, persistent vegetative state, minimally responsive state, akinetic mutism, and locked-in syndrome. (Brain Injury Association, 2009). There are many changes and consequences that affect a person after they have suffered from an acquired brain injury, whether mild, moderate, or severe. These changes may be temporary, improving in time, or permanent, dictating the way they live the rest of their lives. Not only do the changes affect the victim, but they also affect the victims support system (i.e. their surrounding family and community). Each brain injury is unique and subject to change, and depending on the severity of the injury, a patient will witness cognitive changes shifts in the ability to think and learn, affecting memory, concentration, flexibility, communication, insight, and responses. Physical changes will also be apparent in the form of fatigue, headaches, chronic pain, visual and hearing problems, and sexual function. Behavioural changes may include impulsivity, irritability, inappropriate behaviour, self-centredness, depression, lack of initiative, and sexual behaviour. Challenging Behaviour As stated earlier, most people who have a head injury are left with a change in the form of their emotional or behavioural pattern. This is inevitable as the brain is the seat and control centre of all our emotions and behaviour (Powell, 1994, p.96). With this in mind, challenging behaviour alone has become synonymous with ABI as one of the main behavioural deficits that occur following injury. The literature of ABI has accentuated that challenging behaviour presents the most significant behavioural disturbance within this diagnosis, and can pose serious problems for their recovery, their family, and also their community. Kelly et al. (2008) provided evidence that challenging behaviours have often been associated with risks such as family disintegration, loss of accommodation, reduced access to rehabilitation or community facilities and legal charges (p.457). Results of their study indicated that 94% of the patients they studied showed broad behavioural disturbance, with 60% engaging in four or more behaviour problems (p.463). However, due to convergent opinions on what constitutes a challenging behaviour, defining such behaviour has become difficult. However, Headway Ireland (2009) have made one such attempt to define challenging behaviour: any behaviour, or lack of behaviour of such intensity, frequency and/or duration that has the potential to cause distress or harm to clients/carers/staff or one which creates feelings of discomfort, powerlessness, frustration, fear or anxiety. It is also behaviour, which delays or limits access to ordinary community facilities and is outside socially acceptable norms. As mentioned earlier, types of behavioural problems that may occur following an acquired brain injury include agitation, depression, anxiety, self-centredness, withdrawal, physical aggression, increased/decreased libido, impulsivity, self harm, restlessness, paranoia, and many others. As each brain injury is unique, some patients may suffer with some symptoms, whereas others may not. Each person is entirely unique, with severities and symptoms being completely individual. So why exactly do patients suffering from an ABI present with challenging behaviours? Powell (1994) suggests that there seems to be four main reasons why these challenging behaviours exist: (a) direct neurological damage; (b) exaggeration of previous personality; (c) the stresses of adjustment; and (d) the environment the person lives in (p.97). With regards to direct neurological damage, the challenging behaviour results directly from the damage done to the certain area of the brain. Many of the challenging behaviours stem from damage done to the frontal lobes, which are important for the regulation of emotions, motivation, sexual libido, self-control and self-awareness. Following a brain injury, the patients existing personality traits, tendencies, and problems may be exaggerated, it is as if the controls or brakes which modify and regulate the personality have been loosened, and traits and mannerisms become distorted and exaggerated (p.97). It is highly important for the professio nals working along side the patient to be aware of the patients previous personality when attempting to understand their challenging behaviour. Thirdly, stress of adjustment can also be a major contributor to the challenging behaviour that persists in patients with ABI. Finding out that one can no longer do the simple things in life anymore, such as play their favourite sport or instrument, can be extremely frustrating and stressful for the patient. It is more likely that under these extreme conditions of stress that one would become more angry and irritable, and become more preoccupied with their problems than before. Finally, the social and physical environment can also contribute to the onset of behavioural problems. The social environment relates to the natural supports surrounding the patient such as family, friends, neighbours, and professional staff, whereas the physical environment depicts the patients setting, whether its an institutional setting or a family home. Taking in to consideration both the social and physical environment, if the person suffering from ABI is not understood, and communication and support is poor, then their behaviour is likely to deteriorate as a result. It is crucial for the patient to be in the correct environment to reap the best opportunities possible. How others respond to the challenging behaviour of a person with an ABI plays a crucial role in the rehabilitation process, as well as the quality of life of family and friends surrounding the patient. Of concern is the setting in which the patient is located these behaviours can endure and worsen over time, particularly in unstructured settings where there is often little control over the environmental contingencies that govern behaviour (Kelly et al., 2006). Alderman (2001) has stated how behaviour modification programmes can create profound changes within the neurorehabilitation setting. There exists an amalgamation of research conducted in this area with some very mentionable results. Watson et al. (2000) conducted a case study on patient, JH, who had sustained a brain injury as a result of a gunshot wound, and developed severe behavioural problems. A differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (DRL) intervention was devised for 85 weeks, which allowed JH the opportunity to gain stars at the end of the day if he had absolved from aggressive behaviour to a created limit. This treatment resulted in JHs level of Clopixol being reduced from three times a day, down to two without any side effects on his challenging behaviour. DRL has demonstrated the effectiveness in reducing both the frequency and severity of aggressive behaviour 10 years after a very severe TBI had been sustained (p.1011). Other studies stress different approaches to treatment of challenging behaviours, such as remedial behaviour therapy approaches, or Rothwell et al. (1999) who suggest the main emphasis in treating challenging behaviours should be upon behavioural assessment as it engenders an empathic understanding of what is often offensive behaviour, which helps reduce the stress experienced by the people affected by the behaviour and leads to respectful, individualized and holistic interventions (p.530). Self-Awareness As mentioned earlier, challenging behaviour is synonymous with ABI, however deficits in self-awareness have also been well established in the literature to be evident in patients with brain injury. Impaired self-awareness poses great challenges for rehabilitation, and also for the safety of the patient suffering from the ABI. Self-awareness can be defined as the capacity to perceive the self in relatively objective terms while maintaining a sense of subjectivity (Prigtano Schacter, 1991, p. 13). The ability to think subjectively and objectively of ourselves, and to adjust our behaviours accordingly, are abilities that are often overlooked, but are none-the-less crucial for daily living, and integration into society. These skills are commonly impaired following a brain injury, as both are constructs associated with executive functions and related to frontal-executive systems dysfunction (Goverover et al. 2007, p. 913). Oddy et al. (1985) undertook a study in a bid to portray the implications of a decreased level of self-awareness (specifically behavioural limitations) after traumatic brain injury. The researchers asked patients and their surrounding families to describe the behavioural problems that prevailed seven years following the brain injuries occurrence. The results noted that patients tended to underestimate their problems in comparison to their families reports. For example, 53% of patients noted that memory problems were the most common long term difficulty, whereas 79% of the families noted memory problems as significant sequelae. Also, patients failed to report two problems that the families reported. 40% of the families noted that the patient behaved in a much more childlike manner, and also that the patients refused to admit to their difficulties. This study brought to light the issue of self-awareness impairment. We have so far spoken of self awareness deficits and its prevalence within people who have ABI, but what exactly are the implications of such a deficit? It is widely suggested that an increased impairment of self-awareness is associated with increased problems in most other areas of the patients life. For example, Larn et al. (1998) studied that ABI patients with poor self-awareness show less compliance and participation during treatment in rehabilitation. Malec Degiorgio (2002) found that ABI patients with decreased level of self-awareness are considerably more at risk of being referred for more intensive rehabilitation. Malec et al. (2000) found that such patients require longer lengths of stay in rehabilitation; Sherer et al. (2003) found that patients are more likely to be associated with a poorer functional status at time of discharge from rehabilitation. Ezrachi et al. (1991) found that deficits in a patients level of self-awareness is foretelling of a low rate of return to em ployment following a brain injury. And finally, Ergh et al. (2002) found that a high level of impairment of self-awareness with the ABI patient is reflective of higher distress among caregivers (as cited in High, 2005). With regards to treatment of impaired self-awareness in individuals with ABI, there is a vast range of methods which have been studied. Crosson et al. (1989) have shown that group therapy programmes can be beneficial in increasing intellectual awareness. Zhou et al. (1996) studied three adult males who were trained in knowledge of ABI residuals using a game format to present training information (p. 1). Results suggested that all participants increased their knowledge relating to areas of behaviour, emotion, cognition, communication, physical, and sensory residuals. Many studies have exemplified the role of observation and feedback to improve individuals level of self-awareness. For example, Schlund (1999) undertook a case study of a 21-year-old male who was a TBI survivor and was 5 years post-injury. Results of this study showed that report-performance measurement, feedback and review, positively altered the patients awareness deficit. However, observation and feedback are not witho ut its faults as Bieman-Copland Dywan (2000) point out. Their study suggested that direct feedback becomes confrontational and can lead to agitation among patients with severe brain injury. This study highlights the need for each treatment to be individualised to ensure the best possible outcomes of treatment. Fleming et al. (2006) evaluated the usefulness of an individualised occupation-based approach for participants dealing with ABI, specifically with regards to the level of self-awareness and emotional status. The unique focus of the program was the use of meaningful occupations to provide the individuals with experiential feedback of their current level of ability through the use of self-monitoring and supportive therapist feedback (p. 51). The results supported the use of this type of therapy in increasing self-awareness, and that occupational performance may be highly important in increasing the self-awareness of people with ABI. Finally, Goverover et al. (2007) conducted a randomised controlled study on the self-awareness treatment model, stipulated upon Toglia and Kirks model (2000). Their study provided evidence for experiencing different tasks and everyday activities for enhancing self-awareness and self-regulation. Although treatment of impaired self-awareness is crucial for the patients full recovery, it has been studied that increasing the level of self-awareness in ABI patients can also have some negative consequences. Fleming Strong (1995) suggested that the belief that increased self-awareness is essential for positive outcomes in rehabilitation and needs to undergo further investigation, as a literature review suggests that the development of self-awareness can be associated with emotional distress in the individual (p. 55). This study further exemplifies the necessity to create individual treatment plans when in rehabilitation. Interventions With technology constantly advancing in the medical sector, it is evident that sustaining a brain injury no longer suggests a death sentence. With this in consideration, the emphasis has shifted towards rehabilitation of those who have sustained such an injury in order to help them attain the best quality of life possible. Many interventions have been conducted and researched for improving self-awareness, and also for managing challenging behaviours, which directly improve the life of the patient. There are limited studies focusing on the effectiveness of interventions in reducing self-awareness deficits, and whether these interventions contribute to positive outcomes in rehabilitation. However, in a literature review, Lucas Fleming (2005) suggest that interventions in self-awareness can be broken into two categories restorative/facilitatory, or compensatory. Within the restorative/facilitatory category, education, direct feedback, and experiential feedback [are] the most frequently recommended (p.163), with others such as behavioural therapy, psychotherapy and rating of task performance also being recommended. Education relates to ensuring the patient understands his or her injury and the impairments that this injury brings. This can be delivered through a variety of ways such as group therapy, visual aids, and support groups. Direct feedback following a task performance can be used to facilitate intellectual, emergency, and anticipatory awareness (p.164), whereas experient ial feedback allows the patient to go through difficulty in a real-life situation and is useful in emergent and anticipatory awareness (p.164). Compensatory strategies then As noted earlier, challenging behaviours and problematic social interaction have been liked to individuals with brain injury, which result in an amelioration of difficulties in areas such as family life, integration into the community and employment, to name but a few. Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) works with environmental stimuli that impede on the challenging behaviour, and it is behavioral [sic] research in the field of brain injury rehabilitation [that] is an effective means of identifying techniques for reducing challenging behaviours and improving adaptive skills (Selznick Gurdin, Huber Cochran, 2005, p.15). This research is extensive and incorporates many different behavioural interventions, all of which have been proven to be successful. Within schools and residential programs, intervention procedures have been undertaken to reduce challenging behaviours that disrupt academic behaviour. Feeney Ylvisaker (1995) incorporated antecedent treatment using graphic organizers, curing, plan-do-review routines, and inclusion of the participant in decision-making. This treatment reduced the intensity and frequency of aggressive behaviour evident in three males with TBI. Gardner, Bird, Maguire, Carrario, Abenaim (2003) also reduced challenging behaviours using antecedent control procedures, however their success was due to interspersal and fading techniques. Selznick Savage (2000) examined self-monitoring methods for individuals who had sustained a brain injury. These methods proved to be effective for increasing attending, academic responding, and task accuracy as well as for improving social skills with individuals with behaviour disorders, mental retardation, and learning disabilities (p.243 ). This study found that on-tas k behaviour increased to 89 100% for three boys with brain injury when these self monitoring procedures were undertaken. Consequence-based interventions have also been studied extensively in this area and prove to have significant positive results. Peck, Potoczny-Gray, and Luiselli (1999) used instructional motor activities when a 15 year old boy with ABI showed signs of stereotypy in the classroom. This intervention reduced stereotypy and maintained its reduction when treatment was faded. Within the rehabilitation area, there has been extensive research depicting behavioural procedures that reduce challenging behaviour. Hegel (1988) implemented a token economy system to an 18 year old boy with a brain injury during therapy session in order to reduce his disruptive vocalizations and his noncompliance. As a result of the token economy system, his vocalizations decreased and his achieved goals increased. On a similar note, Silver et al. (1994) used a monetary reward system on a 12 year old girl with an anoxic brain injury. This was incorporated in a bid to improve her performance of morning tasks. She was reinforced with one penny for each step that she correctly completed. Reinforcement was gradually faded, and by the end of the intervention her verbal cues and physical assistance had decreased by 70 92%. Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour (DRA) has also been proven to be successful in reducing challenging behaviour. Slifer et al. (1993) used this tech nique with extinction, response cost, and a token economy, to reduce disruptive behaviour. In most cases, DRA reduced disruptive behaviour and also increased compliance. From examining these studies, it suggests that various reinforcement procedures may facilitate more efficient therapeutic goal attainment and subsequent home and community reintegration (Gurdin et al. 2005, p.12). Purpose of current study The purpose of the current study was to investigate the prevalence of self-awareness and challenging behaviours in persons with acquired brain injury, intervention types, and success ratings. This study will incorporate a sample of Irish patients who have ABI, which is presently absence in the research conducted to date. It will also provide information on what intervention types are most regularly used among persons with ABI, and the success ratings of such intervention types.

African Archaeology :: Africa African Archaeology Essays

1) Metallurgical Origins in Africa Introduction The study of metallurgy in Africa has been dominated by a concern with origins and antiquity. Some Anthropologists believe that African metallurgy was an early, independent invention, while others believe that it was an innovation, which came relatively late, and was a product of diffusion. With these two hypotheses as our only reference points, we are limited in our knowledge of metallurgy as well as its role in the lives of African people. Anthropologists often find themselves in the predicament of being presented with a small number of precedent theories, which shape and direct further studies. Diffusionism J.O. Vogel, in an article published in the Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa (1991) entitled â€Å"Copper Metallurgy,† took the diffusionist theory of African metallurgy as a given, stating that â€Å"The ultimate source of sub-Saharan metallurgy has not been conclusively identified, but among the most likely source areas are Carthage or southern Morocco via Berber traders crossing the Sahara.† (Vogel, 1997: 125) This author was working within the framework of diffusionist ideas, leaving little room for alternate theories. James Woodhouse, however, a proponent of Indigenism, discusses the logistics of this theory, citing references that suggest that smelting in Carthage only appeared in the early first millennium B.C., making diffusion into Nigeria, and lands further south, difficult in such a short time, if not impossible. More explicitly, Vogel states that â€Å"Copper metallurgy was invented in Eurasia, and began before 6000 B.C,† (Vogel, 1997: 125) and place s the first evidences of African smelting between 900 and 300 B.C. (Vogel, 1997: 126). Without any specific physical evidence cited to this effect, the argument lacks a certain amount of credibility. Another model, which is inherent of diffusionist theory, is that of â€Å"progressive development.† It seems to be a trend in much of Western thought that societies must undergo certain stages of development to qualify as civilizations. The theory proposes that when faced with a new technology, people will automatically embrace it in order to â€Å"better† themselves, and to move up on the ladder of civilization. Proponents of the progressive development theory see any deviation from this pattern as problematic and anomalous. This is shown in the terminology used by certain anthropologists when describing such deviations. In the case of African metallurgy, any society, which does not produce metals, or does not embrace the technology immediately, is seen as facing some sort of â€Å"barrier.